No one could have possibly imagined the story that would become Andrew Jackson’s life.
Despite a humble beginning and the numerous tragedies woven throughout his childhood, young Andrew Jackson became a fiery, passionate fighter determined to take life by the reins and succeed.
Early Life
Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, near Lancaster, South Carolina. His parents, Andrew and Elizabeth, along with his two older brothers, Hugh and Robert, emigrated from Ireland two years earlier.
Jackson’s father, for whom he was named, died shortly before he was born. Raised by his widowed mother in the Waxhaws settlement located near the North Carolina and South Carolina border, Jackson grew up with a large extended family that were also Scots-Irish immigrant farmers. His mother had hopes of him becoming a Presbyterian minister but young Jackson quickly dashed those hopes with his propensity for pranks, cursing and fighting.
Saved, Yet Orphaned
The battles of the American Revolutionary War that raged in the Carolinas from 1778 to 1781 had a devastating effect on Jackson’s life. Andrew, along with his brothers, joined the patriotic cause and volunteered to fight the British and when he was only thirteen.
His oldest brother Hugh died of heat stroke following the Battle of Stono Ferry in 1779. In 1781, Jackson and his brother Robert were captured. During their captivity, a British officer slashed Jackson with his sword after he refused to polish the officer’s boots. Additionally, both Andrew and Robert contracted smallpox in prison and were gravely ill when their mother arranged for their release in a prisoner exchange. Shortly after their release, Robert succumbed to the illness and died. Jackson survived.
After Jackson recovered, his mother traveled to Charleston to aid the war effort by nursing injured and sick soldiers. Tragically, while there she contracted cholera and died leaving Jackson an orphan at the young age of fourteen.
A Spirited Youth
After the war, Jackson briefly resided with members of his mother’s family but soon went to Charleston and embarked upon a campaign of youthful adventure and mischief.
About this time, Jackson received a modest inheritance from a grandfather still in Ireland. When his money ran out, Jackson finished school and, although he disdained studying, worked as a schoolteacher for a short period. Tall and lanky with red hair and piercing blue eyes, Jackson was known for his fiery temper, fearlessness, playful personality and daring spirit.
Budding Lawyer
In 1784, when he was seventeen, Jackson decided to become an attorney. He moved to Salisbury, North Carolina, where he studied law by apprenticing with prominent lawyers. After three years, Jackson received his license to practice law in several counties scattered throughout the North Carolina back country. To supplement his income he also worked in small-town general stores.
While living in North Carolina, Jackson gained a reputation for being charismatic, wild and ambitious. He loved to dance, entertain, gamble and spend his free time with friends in taverns.
A Start in Public Office
Soon after his twenty-first birthday, Jackson’s friend and mentor, John McNairy was elected Superior Court Judge of the newly formed “Western District” by the North Carolina General Assembly. This territory stretched from the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River. As one of his first acts, McNairy appointed Jackson as the district’s prosecuting attorney.
In 1788, Jackson followed the Wilderness Road across the rugged Allegheny Mountains to Jonesborough, TN and practiced law briefly in Jonesborough and Greeneville. In the fall of 1788, he moved to Nashville.
Jackson maintained his reputation as being hot-tempered. In 1806, a quarrel with Charles Dickinson over a horse race soon turned violent when Dickinson made rude comments about the character of Andrew’s wife, Rachel.
Jackson challenged Dickinson to a duel in Kentucky to settle the matter. Dickinson, a well-known marksman, fired the first shot wounding Jackson in the chest. Despite this, Jackson still managed to shoot and mortally wound Dickinson. After several months, Jackson recovered from his physical injuries but his reputation was tarnished by such scandals and duels. Consequently, he retreated to The Hermitage.
Then, in 1812, a war began.
Jackson was elected the General of the Tennessee Militia in 1802. Thus, when troops were needed on the southern and western frontiers, the War Department sent Jackson along with the Tennessee Militia.
General Andrew Jackson
During the War of 1812 General Andrew Jackson led his troops through enemy territory to victory in several tide-turning battles.
In doing so, he greatly aided our nation’s victory in the war. This led to the procurement of millions of acres in the present-day southern United States, including Florida. Just as significant, his victory ignited a spirit of confidence and patriotism across the nation at a time when it was desperately needed.
Early Military
Jackson’s toughness and determination reminded his troops of a firmly rooted Hickory tree, and earned him the nickname “Old Hickory.”
In spite of his frequent disagreements with the government on military actions and of his ragtag troops who frequently tried to go home when their enlistment was up, Jackson caught the nation’s attention by delivering the final blow to end the Creek War.
A Low Point for the Nation
When the United States declared war on Great Britain in summer of 1812, Andrew Jackson’s political career was at a standstill, his social standing had fallen, and his finances were in shambles.
He was disillusioned not only with the state of his own life but also with the inability of his country to protect its citizens and their property. Jackson found renewed hope in the opportunities the war with Britain offered for the future of the United States as well as for him personally to turn around his fortune as Major General of the Tennessee Militia. Moreover, the war fed into his deeply ingrained need to prove himself.
Earning “Old Hickory”
Due to his reputation for rashness President Madison hesitated to call on Jackson’s proffered services. His friendship with Aaron Burr did not endear him as a choice either since Burr was suspected of using his political power to convince western states to secede from the United States in order to start his own country. However, Madison gave way in December of 1812 and commissioned Jackson Major General of U.S. Volunteers, ordered him to lead 1,500 troops south to Natchez and to eventually defend New Orleans.
Believing the threat to New Orleans abated, the U.S. War Department ordered the immediate dismissal of Jackson’s forces in March 1813 making no offer to compensate the troops or provide for their food or return travel to Tennessee.
Outraged, Jackson decided that he would return his men home through hostile Indian lands even if he had to pay the expense himself. Not only did he successfully lead his poorly provisioned army back to Tennessee intact but he also encouraged them by sharing in all the hardships they faced along with them. His troops compared Jackson’s toughness to a hickory tree and nicknamed him “Old Hickory.”
Another Personal Conflict
Tennesseans greeted Jackson with newfound respect for his actions to preserve the honor of its volunteer fighting men. At last, Jackson had begun to move out of the shadow of his past.
But his temper quickly got him in trouble once again. Instead of acting as peacemaker in a dispute between two of his officers, Jackson took sides causing the argument to expand. The quarrel ignited into a gunfight in the streets of Nashville that left Jackson horribly wounded in the upper left arm.
Leadership to First Victories
While Jackson was recovering from his wound, word reached Tennessee of settlers at Fort Mims (in present-day Southern Alabama) being massacred by a hostile faction of the Creek Nation called Red Sticks
He received orders to put down the Creek uprising and, despite his injury, Jackson gathered his forces in October 1813 and marched south. In November, Jackson was victorious in significant battles against the Creeks at Tallushatchee and Talladega.
Leadership By Fear
Jackson’s initial successes left him hungry for further victories but he faced the threat of desertion from much of his force due to supply problems and disagreements over the length of their enlistment.
On two separate occasions, Jackson prevented mass desertions of his troops by threatening them at gunpoint. However, when his troops reached the end of their terms of service Jackson was compelled to let them go.
Jackson appealed to the governor of Tennessee to send him more troops. Finally, in January 1814, new troops began to arrive swelling his ranks to 5,000 men. Greatly outnumbering the Creek warriors, Jackson’s army surrounded them at Horseshoe Bend and inflicted a punishing defeat, effectively ending the Creek War in March of 1814.
Jackson Promoted to General
The victorious Jackson returned to Tennessee where he was greeted as the hero who not only defeated the Creeks, but also enabled the future security of the region by building military roads and forts. His successes were lauded across the country at a time when the War of 1812 was going poorly. Even the Madison Administration recognized that in Jackson they had a man who stood out on the field of battle where others had failed miserably.
Treaty of Fort Jackson
After Jackson’s successes in the Creek War, the U.S. War Department rewarded him with a commission as Major General in the U.S. Army over the 7th Military District. This included Tennessee, Louisiana and the Mississippi Territory.
Jackson’s immediate orders were to negotiate a peace treaty with the Creek Nation. In August of 1814, Jackson met with their chiefs. There he forced the Treaty of Fort Jackson that forced the Creeks to give up nearly 23 million acres and remove their settlements to a smaller area of land that American forces could more easily patrol.
Rounding Up Jackson’s Motley Troops
Britain’s war with France ended in early 1814 and the British turned their attention to the United States. Fresh troops were sent to invade the U.S. and secure Canada. In August 1814, the British burned Washington, but were repelled at Baltimore.
Meanwhile, Jackson learned of a rumored invasion of the South through either New Orleans or Mobile. He acted quickly to repair the defenses at Mobile. He then, with the questionable authority to do so, invaded portions of Spanish Florida in order to eliminate threats from British forces and Native Americans hostile to the United States.
On December 1, 1814, Jackson entered New Orleans to strengthen its defenses and amass a truly unique American Army. Regular U.S. troops, volunteer militia from Tennessee, Kentucky, Louisiana and the Mississippi Territory, free blacks, Creoles, Native Americans and even a band of pirates comprised Jackson’s new force; however, Jackson’s army was greatly outnumbered and inexperienced compared to the superior British troops that threatened New Orleans.
Passion Defeats Experience
The British invasion of Louisiana began on December 14 with light resistance from Jackson’s army. On December 23, Jackson attacked the advancing British troops and halted their advance. For the next two weeks, the two armies squared off as the British probed for a way through Jackson’s defenses to New Orleans.
Finally, on January 8, 1815, the British conducted a full-scale attack on Jackson and the defenders of New Orleans. To the amazement of the world, Jackson’s army handed the British attackers a crushing defeat that forced them to withdraw from Louisiana.
The General Becomes a Hero
Word of Jackson’s victory ignited a wave of celebration and national pride in the young United States and a newly earned respect from European powers. On December 24, 1814 American and British negotiators in Belgium agreed to a peace treaty between the two nations. However, by January 8, 1815 word of the treaty had not reached American shores, so neither of the armies nor the President or Congress were aware of it. In fact, the Treaty of Ghent was not ratified by Congress and President Madison until February 16, 1815 thus officially ending the War of 1812.
Jackson’s string of military success, despite the obstacles he faced, the poor results of other military leaders during the War of 1812, and his stunning victory at New Orleans made him a celebrated national hero, revered above all others except George Washington.
Fight for Florida
In the peacetime army that followed, U.S. forces were divided into northern and southern divisions with Major General Jackson in command of the latter. Jackson would use this post to secure the southern borders of the United States. In his eyes, the southern United States suffered from two security problems, the Native Americans and Spanish Florida.
Jackson used his reputation as a fierce fighter and the threat of force to get the Creeks, Chickasaws, Cherokees and Choctaws to sign treaties ceding huge tracts of land to the U.S. and confining their tribes to much smaller territories. For the Native Americans these accords proved disastrous and were the first step in their eventual removal to the west.
For Jackson, Spanish Florida was a threat to American security due to America’s lack of military might in the region. The British saw it as a possible route of invasion and the Seminole tribe carried out raids in the United States then fled to the refuge of Spanish Florida.
Jackson Decides to Invade
In 1818, Jackson, once again acting with questionable authority, invaded Spanish Florida to attack the Seminoles. After three months, Jackson declared the Seminole threat over and withdrew.
The Spanish realized that Jackson and the United States were determined to take Spanish Florida. In 1819, Spain and the U.S. agreed to the Adams-Onís Treaty, giving Florida to the United States and advantageously settling the boundaries between the respective governments’ holdings in North America in favor of the United States.
In June 1821, Jackson hesitantly resigned his commission in the U.S. Army to become the Military Governor of the Florida Territory.
Talk of Presidency Begins
From 1812 to 1821, Jackson’s military career made him a national hero and brought to him increased wealth and opportunities. For the United States, Jackson’s actions secured its southern lands, acquired millions of acres for settlement that ultimately fueled the cotton boom, and gave Americans a newfound confidence or “go ahead” spirit that began an unbridled expansion in agriculture and manufacturing. Soon, Jackson’s countrymen would introduce him as a candidate for President of the United States.
President Andrew Jackson
As president, Andrew Jackson strengthened the power of the presidency, defended the Union, gained new respect for the United States in foreign affairs, and pushed the country toward democracy.
Candidacy
General Andrew Jackson’s military exploits painted him as a natural leader who both represented the common man and brought swift action to important matters of the day.
Although his candidacy brought controversy and even deep personal loss upon him, Jackson was beloved by the country whom recognized in him a unique spark they believed would take the nation to new heights.
The road to presidency was long and difficult for Andrew Jackson. Though successful, his campaign came with a price.
Senator, Judge and Business Owner
Before Jackson’s military exploits, back in the 1790s, he played an instrumental role in developing North Carolina’s western lands into the state of Tennessee.
He was appointed Attorney General of the Mero District (the area around present-day Nashville). In his first elected position in 1796, he served as a delegate to the Tennessee Constitutional Convention in Knoxville. There he helped draft Tennessee’s first state constitution and bill of rights.
Making Tennessee Official
In 1796, Jackson was elected to serve as Tennessee’s first member of the U.S. House of Representatives (1796-1797). Afterwards, he was selected by the Tennessee General Assembly to serve as U.S. Senator (1797-1798).
Due to boredom and mounting financial difficulties at home, Jackson cut his senatorial career short. In 1799 he returned to Tennessee and took a well-paid position as a circuit judge on Tennessee’s Superior Court. This post required him to travel throughout the state, including the state capital at Knoxville.
Simultaneously, Jackson maintained a law practice in Nashville and established several commercial business ventures at his plantations in northeastern Davidson County including general merchandise stores, whiskey distilleries and boat making.
Strategic and Perilous Connections
Despite Jackson’s presumed retirement from public life, he continued to correspond with important political leaders such as President Thomas Jefferson. He also maintained other connections of a more risky nature such as that with former Vice-President Aaron Burr. Jackson’s friendship with Burr, who conspired to break up the U.S. for his own personal advancement, almost cost Jackson his future. Luckily, he realized Burr’s intentions in time to separate himself from Burr’s plot.
“Let me hear from you occasionally. I am very lonesome,…without…my military family & army companions.”
ANDREW JACKSON TO RICHARD IVY EASTER IN 1822
Homesick as Florida Governor
Flash forward to July 17, 1821. After Jackson’s success in the War of 1812, he was appointed territorial governor of Florida and took possession of it from Spain.
From the start, Jackson disliked Florida’s climate as did his wife, Rachel. He quickly became disillusioned with the unending appointments and office seekers, the issues with the transition of the territory from Spain with which he had to deal, and political disagreements with President Monroe’s administration.
In November 1821, Jackson resigned his governorship citing health matters and a desire to retire from public life as his reasons. Jackson had a thriving plantation in Tennessee with a newly completed brick home to which both he and Rachel yearned to return and live out their lives.
But, the American people quickly ended any real or feigned hope Jackson had of spending a quiet life in retirement as a gentleman farmer at The Hermitage.
“…the people have a right to choose whom they will…”
ANDREW JACKSON TO JAMES C. BRONAUGH
A New Senate Seat and Attitude
In 1822, the Tennessee Legislature nominated him as a candidate for president of the United States. To test Jackson’s political strength, he was nominated and elected as a U.S. Senator from Tennessee in 1823. As Senator, Jackson cautiously steered clear of controversy and favored working on military affairs.
Jackson used his time in Washington to make friends and political allies while also endeavoring to convince Washingtonians that he was not an uncivilized Westerner or a military tyrant. He did so by demonstrating his refined manners and controlling his temper. However, Jackson’s time in Washington only reinforced his belief that many politicians and government officers were corrupt.
A Controversial Election
In the 1824 presidential contest, Jackson did not publicly advocate for his own election, in keeping with the tradition of the day. However Jackson did make it clear he was determined to cleanse government of corruption and return it to its earlier values.
Americans went to the polls in the fall of 1824. Though Jackson won the popular vote he did not win enough Electoral College votes to be elected. The decision fell to the House of Representatives who met on February 9, 1825. They elected John Quincy Adams with House Speaker Henry Clay as Adams’ chief supporter. Jackson graciously accepted his defeat until rumors swirled that Clay and Adams had struck a deal to ensure Adams’ election. When Adams named Henry Clay as his Secretary of State, it confirmed Jackson’s suspicions that the two men had reached a “corrupt bargain” and deprived the American people of their popular choice for president.
“…the opinion of those whose minds were prepared to see me with a Tomahawk in one hand, & a scalping knife in the other has greatly changed…”
ANDREW JACKSON TO MAJOR GEORGE W. MARTIN IN 1824
Political Attacks Become Personal
Disheartened by the antics in Washington, Jackson resigned his Senate seat and returned to Tennessee. Immediately, he and his supporters began laying the groundwork for his election in 1828.
A grassroots party was organized around Jackson known initially as the Democratic- Republicans and later simply as the Democratic Party. Jackson’s organization garnered him support across the nation. More importantly it helped ignite the public’s involvement in the political process. This was timely as voting qualifications (for white men) were being eased.
Jackson’s supporters also penalized Adams’ administration over what they believed to be the “corrupt bargain.” In Congress, Jackson’s men opposed Adams and his programs calling for increased spending on internal improvements and other initiatives for building public institutions.
Further detriment was done to Adams as he appeared out of touch with the “common man”. Thus, after three years in office Adams had accomplished very little due to opposition from Jackson, corruption within his administration, and his own shortcomings.
A Brutal Campaign Trail
By 1828, Jackson was ready to win the White House. First he would suffer through a bruising campaign still recognized today as one of the most malicious in American history.
Adams’ supporters accused Jackson of being a military tyrant who would use the presidency as a springboard for his own Napoleonic ambitions of empire. For proof, they brought out every skeleton in Jackson’s closet; his duels and brawls, his execution of troops for desertion, his declaration of martial law in New Orleans, his friendship with Aaron Burr, and his invasions of Spanish Florida in 1814 and 1818.
The most painful attack for Jackson, by far, was that on his and Rachel’s character over their marriage. Technically, Rachel was a bigamist and Jackson her partner in it. Adams’ supporters thus judged Jackson as morally unfit to hold the nation’s highest office.
“…Was there ever witnessed such a bare face corruption in any country before?”
ANDREW JACKSON TO WILLIAM B. LEWIS
The Tides Turn for Jackson
Jackson’s allies went into the campaign of 1828 with the political advantage and so spent much of their time simply defending Jackson. They promoted Jackson’s program of governmental reform, retrenchment and economy to bring honor and financial solvency back to Washington and the nation. They largely stayed away from other controversial issues. However, they did not let the character assaults launched by Adams’ men go unanswered.
They struck back with attacks on corrupt officials in Adams’ administration and labeled Adams an elitist who wanted to increase the size and power of government to benefit the aristocracy.
In the fall of 1828, the decision fell to the voters and they overwhelmingly elected Jackson. His victory was seen as a complete repudiation of Adams and his vision for America. Furthermore, it revealed that some believed the United States government was run by a small group of aristocrats unresponsive to the demands of the voters.
Voting for the “Common Man”
The “common man” saw in Jackson a like-minded individual and thus sent him to Washington to take office and crush the power of the aristocrats. Voters trusted Jackson and saw his military accomplishments as an indication he would bring the same success in restoring honor to the government.
Personally, Jackson felt vindicated for the “corrupt bargain” that robbed him of the White House in 1824. It was also the opportunity to lay waste to the barbs and accusations flung during the campaign. Jackson had reached a high point in his life, but its cost proved tragic.
Jackson’s Win Overshadowed by a Great Loss
The public controversy over her marriage placed a great deal of strain on Rachel Jackson, emotionally and physically. She also feared Washington’s social circles and had no desire to return to it.
In a letter written on December 22, 1828, Jackson noted that his wife had already fallen gravely ill once in the fall of 1828 although her health had begun to recover. In a matter of hours after Jackson wrote those words, Rachel collapsed and died, likely from a heart attack, according to the best assessments of modern day physicians.
Grief stricken, Jackson buried Rachel two days later in the garden at The Hermitage with a large assemblage of mourners on hand. One month later, Jackson left The Hermitage for Washington to assume the nation’s highest office, bereft of the love of his life.
President Andrew Jackson redefined what it meant to lead the country.
Controversy from the Start
Andrew Jackson’s time as president would mark a major historical shift for the United States. Unfortunately, the first two years of his term were marred by a social scandal that turned political.
Just months before Jackson took office his close friend and Secretary of War, John Eaton, married Margaret “Peggy” Timberlake of whom Washington socialites disapproved due to her questionable upbringing and rumors concerning her past. When the other cabinet members’ wives refused to associate with Mrs. Eaton, Jackson was forced to defend his friends, especially since John Eaton had defended Rachel Jackson so vigorously during the 1828 campaign. He demanded Mrs. Eaton be accepted into Washington’s social circles. This became known as the “Eaton Affair.”
At the same time, several of Jackson’s cabinet members, thinking he would only serve one term, were positioning themselves to succeed him as president. These divisive actions resulted in Jackson showing favor only to those who socialized with the Eatons and proved their loyalty to him in other ways.
To rid himself of the immediate controversy Jackson dismissed his entire cabinet in 1831 except for the Postmaster General. In time, this caused Jackson to turn to a group of unofficial advisors. His opponents labeled them his “Kitchen Cabinet” because of their “back door” access to the President.
“There has been a great noise made about removals. … It is rotation in office that will perpetuate our liberty.”
ANDREW JACKSON
Time to Clean Up Corruption
Despite the Eaton Affair, Jackson still managed to roll up his sleeves and accomplish his reform, retrenchment and economic plans.
Jackson took office with great expectations to cleanse government of corruption and restore the nation’s finances. Washington’s elite feared that Jackson would fire everyone that held government positions, even the competent, and replace them with his own people. Although Jackson replaced only about ten percent of the government officers he held power over, it was a high percentage compared to his predecessors.
The officers he replaced were largely inept, corrupt or were politically opposed to Jackson. For this, Jackson is credited with what he called “the principle of rotation in office,” but others would label it the “spoils system.”
Penny Pinching to Fix the Budget
Jackson kept a watchful eye over government expenditures and congressional appropriations. In one instance, he vetoed a road bill approved by Congress. On top of being too costly, the bill only benefitted one area of the country and failed to improve the nation’s defenses. Prior to Jackson, presidents had only vetoed legislation they believed to be unconstitutional. Jackson established a new principle of vetoing legislation as a matter of policy.
Jackson’s spending controls along with increased revenue enabled him to pay off the national debt in 1835 and keep the nation debt free for the remainder of his term. This is the only time in the nation’s history that the federal government was debt free.
Andrew Jackson is the only president in American history to pay off the national debt and leave office with the country in the black.
A Devastating Decision: The Trail of Tears
Jackson also espoused removing Indian tribes in the United States to the west of the Mississippi River as one of his reforms.
Jackson argued that the United States policy of attempting to assimilate the tribes into white society had failed and the Native Americans’ way of life would eventually be destroyed. Furthermore, he recognized that whites desired their lands and feared if the Native Americans remained in those areas they would eventually be exterminated. Opposition groups fought Jackson’s removal policy in Congress, but their efforts failed by a handful of votes. Congress’ authorization of the Indian Removal Act in 1831 empowered Jackson to make treaties with the tribes in arranging for their displacement.
Though he had railed against government corruption in the past, Jackson largely ignored the shady treaties forced upon the various tribes and the corrupt actions of government officials. The Indian Removal process was completed two years after Jackson left office with great loss of Native American life due to this corruption, inadequate supplies and removal by force.
Today, Jackson’s Indian Removal policy and its tragic consequences which led to the Trail of Tears is the most conspicuous blight on his presidential legacy.
A brief interruption to share what the Cherokee Tribe has to say about this on their website, cherokeemuseum.org:
Trail of Tears
In 1838 Cherokee people were forcibly moved from their homeland and relocated to Indian Territory, now Oklahoma. They resisted their Removal by creating their own newspaper, The Cherokee Phoenix, as a platform for their views. They sent their educated young men on speaking tours throughout the United States. They lobbied Congress, and created a petition with more than 15,000 Cherokee signatures against Removal. They took their case to the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled that they were a sovereign nation n Worcester vs. Georgia (1832). President Andrew Jackson ignored the Supreme Court decision, enforced his Indian Removal Act of 1830, and pushed through the Treaty of New Echota.
In 1838 Cherokee people were forcibly taken from their homes, incarcerated in stockades, forced to walk more than a thousand miles, and removed to Indian Territory, now Oklahoma. More than 4,000 died and many are buried in unmarked graves along “The Trail Where They Cried.”
Trouble with the Bank
With the Eaton Affair behind him and his programs in full swing, Jackson turned his attention to an issue that would define his presidency and forever reshape the office he held. In 1816, the United States Congress chartered the private Second Bank of the United States to hold the country’s money, make loans and regulate currency. Bank profits benefited private stockholders as well as the U.S. government, which owned stock in the bank. In its early years, the bank was riddled with corruption and poor financial management. This resulted in economic hardship in the U.S.
Under the direction of the bank’s new president Nicholas Biddle, however, the Bank’s fortunes were turned around. The nation’s money was now being astutely managed, producing a good business climate as a result.
Jackson realized their important role in the U.S. economy but his distrust in banks in general led him to believe the Bank of the United States held too much power and could wield it at any moment to ruin the U.S. economy. Furthermore, he saw the Bank as a threat to national security since its stockholders were mainly foreign investors with allegiances to other governments.
The crux of the issue for Jackson was what he saw as the never-ending battle between liberty and power in government. In his belief system, people should sacrifice some individual liberty for the beneficial aspects of government. But if any government institution became too powerful it stood as a direct threat to individual liberty.
Jackson signaled early on in his administration that he would consider re-chartering the Bank, but only if its powers were limited.
“The bank is trying to kill me, but I will kill it!”
ANDREW JACKSON TO MARTIN VAN BUREN
Jackson Dominates Reelection
Jackson’s opponents quickly seized opportunity to use the issue with the Bank to attack Jackson. Supporters of the Bank, led by Henry Clay, Jackson’s chief opponent in the 1832 presidential contest, argued that it played a vital role in the economy and that the true threat to individual liberty came from Jackson himself and his broadening of presidential powers. Clay decided that he would force Jackson to make the Bank a campaign issue in 1832 by re-chartering the Bank early.
Clay secured Congressional approval of the re-charter forcing Jackson to promptly veto it on constitutional and policy grounds. Clay and Jackson then put the issue of who or what was the greater danger to individual liberty, to the people. The people overwhelmingly re-elected Jackson.
Vindicated by the people, Jackson prepared to finish his fight with the Bank in his second term, but first had to deal with a threat to the Union.
Our Federal Union: It must be preserved!
ANDREW JACKSON
Runaway South Carolina
South Carolinians, led by Jackson’s former vice-president, John Calhoun, felt the Tariff of 1832 unduly harmed their state while directly benefiting northern manufacturing states since it protected northern manufacturers from foreign competitors who offered cheaper goods.
Calhoun advanced the idea that the states had the constitutional right to nullify (or invalidate) any federal law and that states could secede from the Union.
In late 1832, South Carolina nullified the Tariff of 1832 and threatened secession. Jackson rejected these ideas and promised the use of force if South Carolina disobeyed the law. After much brinksmanship, Congress passed a compromise tariff that placated South Carolina and a bill that authorized the use of force against nullification.
Jackson’s actions prevented a break in the union as well as setting precedents that Abraham Lincoln would later use to oppose secession.
A True Representative of “The People”
With nullification abated, Jackson returned to the Bank War. His relationship with “the people” throughout his first term convinced him that he was the only elected official in the United States that represented all “the people.” As such, Jackson believed he had to use his office to carry out their will.
He interpreted his victory over Clay and the Bank in 1832 as “the people’s” mandate to destroy the powerful Bank and replace it with a decentralized government banking system. While Jackson pushed his banking plan through Congress he handicapped the Bank by ordering the removal of government deposits.
In response, the Bank created an artificial economic panic by calling in loans. The opposition-controlled Senate censured Jackson for removing the deposits without Congressional authorization. Meanwhile, the old debate over liberty and power raged as Jackson, Congress and the Bank were all accused of abusing their powers. Finally, in April 1834 the House approved Jackson’s actions against the Bank.
“I thank God that my life has been spent in a land of liberty and that He has given me a heart to love my country with the affection of a son.”
ANDREW JACKSON
Bringing Life Back to Jackson
Jackson’s focus as president and his determination to carry out the “people’s will” were no doubt motivated in part by the price he paid to become president. The loss of his wife, Rachel, deeply affected him and he would spend the remainder of his life mourning her.
Compounding his sorrows were constant struggles with his health resulting from wounds, harsh military camp life. and the natural aging process.
To cushion the blow of Rachel’s loss and to assist when his health deteriorated, Jackson filled the White House with family and friends. Most notable among these family members were Andrew Jackson Donelson and his wife Emily, who served as his private secretary and official hostess. Andrew Jackson Jr. and his wife, Sarah, replaced the Donelson’s in 1836. Jackson’s favorite portrait painter, friend and fellow widower, Ralph Earl, also lived in the White House.
Jackson left his physical mark on the White House by having the north portico completed, redecorating several rooms (most notably the East Room) and making various improvements to the service buildings and grounds. He entertained lavishly at the White House for both private affairs and public social events which always surprised his detractors who thought him an uncivilized military tyrant.
Jackson Presidency Success with Foreign Affairs
While Jackson struggled with sorrow, his health, personal finances and domestic policy issues, he enjoyed almost complete success in foreign affairs.
Jackson made it known at the outset of his administration that he intended to take no aggressive action against any foreign country. He approached foreign affairs with a simple principle, “to ask nothing that is not clearly right, and to submit to nothing that is wrong.”
With Jackson’s foreign policy principles in hand, coupled with his reputation as a successful military leader, American ministers were able to win newfound respect for American rights and trade all over the globe. Jackson’s administration opened new ports to American trade, won most-favored-nation trading status in other countries, and collected huge sums of money owed the United States by foreign governments.
Although Jackson promised not to increase the size of the U.S. through force, he did try repeatedly but futilely to buy Texas from Mexico. However, Texans declared and won their own independence from Mexico in 1836. Though he badly wanted Texas to join the Union, he stuck to his foreign policy principles and refused to interfere in Mexico’s internal affairs. He cautioned Congress to wait until the situation stabilized before recognizing Texas’ independence. Just days before he left office, Congress recognized Texas and Jackson approved its action.
Jackson’s only true foreign affairs crisis came when France hesitated to pay indemnities to the U.S. it had agreed to in 1831. As the French continued to delay payment, Jackson’s temper surfaced and he began hinting that war with France might be necessary to preserve American honor. With two of its largest trading partners on the brink of war, Great Britain stepped in and helped settle the dispute to preserve the peace. At last, France paid the indemnity and Jackson offered explanations for his threats, but no apologies.
Tying Up Loose Ends
With the French crisis behind him and the nation free of debt, Jackson settled in for the last year of his presidency. Several issues dominated his final days in office including the approval of his decentralized banking system, distribution of the national surplus, currency reform and the campaign to elect Vice-President Martin Van Buren to the presidency.
With 1836 an election year, Congressmen wanted a victory to take home to the voters and they zeroed in on distributing government surpluses to the states for internal improvements. Jackson opposed distribution because he felt it was unconstitutional. He preferred that the surplus be reserved for national defense. Knowing Jackson would oppose their distribution plan, Congress tied it to the banking reforms Jackson long desired.
In June 1836, Congress approved the legislation and sent it to Jackson. Jackson was tempted to veto it because he despised distribution and he felt the regulations on the state banks that held U.S. deposits did not go far enough, but the bill offered a final victory in the Bank War, currency reform and assisted Van Buren in his presidential campaign.
The first assassination attempt on a sitting U.S. president occurred on January 30, 1835, when Richard Lawrence failed to slay Andrew Jackson.
Reforming Currency
Jackson signed the bill and went one step further by reforming the nation’s currency. He argued the paper money system allowed speculators to buy huge quantities of land that drove prices so high that “the people” could not afford it. To combat this, Jackson issued his Specie Circular which required government land be purchased with gold or silver unless the land was bought directly by actual settlers.
Though well intentioned, Jackson’s Specie Circular, lack of regulations on state banks and other issues eventually produced a calamitous economic downturn that destroyed the presidency of Martin Van Buren.
Legacy in Office
When Jackson vacated office in March 1837, he left his mark on the presidency and forever changed the course of American history.
Through his actions and tenure as president, Jackson squarely set the Executive Branch on an equal footing with Congress in terms of power and ability to shape law and government policies.
Jackson preserved and defended the Union against threats from nullifiers and secessionists. Nations across the globe viewed the United States with newfound respect due to Jackson’s management of foreign affairs. Most importantly, however, Jackson’s presidency pushed the nation further toward democracy, but much work remained in granting equal rights and freedoms to those still oppressed in the United States.
Jackson had many faults…but…With the exception of Washington and Lincoln, no man has left a deeper mark on American History.
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Home at Last
Andrew Jackson left Washington for home on March 7, 1837. Well-wishers and supporters lined his route home, cheering the way for the man who had sacrificed much to give them a voice in Washington. Although he was no longer the president, others still sought his counsel and support. Post-presidency, Jackson kept up an active correspondence with many in Washington, offering his insights and advice from The Hermitage in Nashville. Jackson found great joy in spending time with his family and attending church in his final years.
He wanted sincerely to look after the little fellow who had no pull, and that’s what a president is supposed to do.
HARRY TRUMAN
Jackson’s Death
During his final years, Jackson experienced the misery of constant infections, pain, and vision and hearing problems. While he frequently predicted his own death, he continued to fight and hang on to life for the better part of a decade. Finally, on June 8, 1845, surrounded by his loved ones, he died in his bedroom at The Hermitage. The leader, warrior, planter, husband, father, friend and statesman closed his eyes for the last time. For Andrew Jackson, the storm was over.
He was buried two days later in The Hermitage garden with nearly ten thousand people in attendance.
Jackson’s Legacy
Even today, Andrew Jackson is still awash in a storm of controversy. His life is full of contradiction, much like the country he helped build. One of his earliest biographers called him “a democratic autocrat” and “an atrocious saint.”
Without fail, every generation of historians has reshaped and revised our understanding of Jackson and will no doubt continue to do so. The reason is simple; Andrew Jackson is inextricably woven into the fabric of America.
The Age of Jackson
America during the Age of Jackson was a nation brimming with possibility and growing into a golden, young adulthood. Though born far from the wealth of the northern elite, Jackson was able to expand the powers of the President beyond any before him. The result was indelible changes in the government.
Though Jackson also fought hard to restore a nation of “We the People” and give voice to all those he represented as President, this expansion of democracy did not include everyone. Slavery remained a pervasive part of American society as did the continuing displacement of Native Americans. Opportunities for women and free blacks were still largely nonexistent under Jackson’s presidency.
Nevertheless, Jackson helped to inspire a uniquely American sense of promise and hope; the idea that anyone can succeed through hard work and natural ability, rather than through unearned power and privilege.
I thank God that my life has been spent in a land of liberty and that He has given me a heart to love my country with the affection of a son.
ANDREW JACKSON, FAREWELL ADDRESS, MARCH 4, 1837
Andrew Jackson Firsts, Lasts & Onlys
- First president to be a resident of a state other than Massachusetts or Virginia
- First Tennessee representative to the U.S. House
- First president to ride a train
- First president to be assaulted while in office
- First president to be the target of an assassination attempt
- First president born to immigrant parents
- Last president to serve in the Revolutionary War (he participated at age 13!)
- Only president to have been held as a prisoner of war
- Only president to raise a Native American child—Lyncoya, who was found orphaned after the Battle of Tallushatchee (1813)
- Only president to serve in both the American Revolution and the War of 1812
- Only president to pay off the national debt
At the White House
- First president to add running water to the White House
- First president to install indoor toilets at the White House
Jackson Extras
- Jackson was largely self-taught. He read widely from the Bible and the classics to dozens of daily and weekly newspapers.
- Jackson did not free any of his slaves.
- Jackson was only the second president to be photographed.
- While he was in office, some farmers gave Jackson a 1,400-pound wheel of cheese. He invited all comers to help themselves and, for weeks after, the White House reeked of cheese.
- Jackson’s pet parrot, Poll, attended his funeral service, but had to be removed after he started cursing at the mourners.